The collections module includes container data types beyond the builtin types list and dict.



Module: collections
Purpose: Container data types.
Python Version: 2.4 and later

Deque:

A double-ended queue, or “deque”, supports adding and removing elements from either end. The more commonly used stacks and queues are degenerate forms of deques, where the inputs and outputs are restricted to a single end.

Since deques are a type of sequence container, they support some of the same operations that lists support, such as examining the contents with __getitem__(), determining length, and removing elements from the middle by matching identity.

import collections

d = collections.deque('abcdefg')
print 'Deque:', d
print 'Length:', len(d)
print 'Left end:', d[0]
print 'Right end:', d[-1]

d.remove('c')
print 'remove(c):', d



$ python collections_deque.py
Deque: deque(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g'])
Length: 7
Left end: a
Right end: g
remove(c): deque(['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g'])


A deque can be populated from either end, termed “left” and “right” in the Python implementation.

import collections

# Add to the right
d = collections.deque()
d.extend('abcdefg')
print 'extend    :', d
d.append('h')
print 'append    :', d

# Add to the left
d = collections.deque()
d.extendleft('abcdefg')
print 'extendleft:', d
d.appendleft('h')
print 'appendleft:', d


Notice that extendleft() iterates over its input and performs the equivalent of an appendleft() for each item. The end result is the deque contains the input sequence in reverse order.


$ python collections_deque_populating.py
extend    : deque(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g'])
append    : deque(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', 'h'])
extendleft: deque(['g', 'f', 'e', 'd', 'c', 'b', 'a'])
appendleft: deque(['h', 'g', 'f', 'e', 'd', 'c', 'b', 'a'])


Similarly, the elements of the deque can be consumed from both or either end, depending on the algorithm you’re applying.

import collections

print 'From the right:'
d = collections.deque('abcdefg')
while True:
 try:
 print d.pop()
 except IndexError:
 break

print 'From the left:'
d = collections.deque('abcdefg')
while True:
 try:
 print d.popleft()
 except IndexError:
 break



$ python collections_deque_consuming.py
From the right:
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
From the left:
a
b
c
d
e
f
g


Since deques are thread-safe, you can even consume the contents from both ends at the same time in separate threads.

import collections
import threading
import time

candle = collections.deque(xrange(11))

def burn(direction, nextSource):
 while True:
 try:
 next = nextSource()
 except IndexError:
 break
 else:
 print '%8s: %s' % (direction, next)
 time.sleep(0.1)
 print '%8s done' % direction
 return

left = threading.Thread(target=burn, args=('Left', candle.popleft))
right = threading.Thread(target=burn, args=('Right', candle.pop))

left.start()
right.start()

left.join()
right.join()



$ python collections_deque_both_ends.py
    Left: 0
   Right: 10
    Left: 1
   Right: 9
    Left: 2
   Right: 8
    Left: 3
   Right: 7
    Left: 4
   Right: 6
    Left: 5
   Right done
    Left done


Another useful capability of the deque is to rotate it in either direction, to skip over some item(s).

import collections

d = collections.deque(xrange(10))
print 'Normal        :', d

d = collections.deque(xrange(10))
d.rotate(2)
print 'Right rotation:', d

d = collections.deque(xrange(10))
d.rotate(-2)
print 'Left rotation :', d


Rotating the deque to the right (using a positive rotation) takes items from the right end and moves them to the left end. Rotating to the left (with a negative value) takes items from the left end and moves them to the right end. It may help to visualize the items in the deque as being engraved along the edge of a dial.


$ python collections_deque_rotate.py
Normal        : deque([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
Right rotation: deque([8, 9, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])
Left rotation : deque([2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, 1])


defaultdict:

The standard dictionary includes the method setdefault() for retrieving a value and establishing a default if the value does not exist. By contrast, defaultdict lets you specify the default up front when it is initialized.

import collections

def default_factory():
 return 'default value'

d = collections.defaultdict(default_factory, foo='bar')
print d
print d['foo']
print d['bar']



$ python collections_defaultdict.py
defaultdict(<function default_factory at 0x7ca70>, {'foo': 'bar'})
bar
default value


This works well as long as it is appropriate for all keys to use that same default. It can be especially useful if the default is a type used for aggregating or accumulating values, such as a list, set, or even integer. The standard library documentation includes several examples of using defaultdict this way.

References:

Wikipedia: Deque
Deque Recipes
defaultdict examples
James Tauber: Evolution of Default Dictionaries in Python
Python Module of the Week Home
Download Sample Code


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